Thebes By Marie Parsons

The ancient name for the city the Greeks called Thebai was Waset, the Scepter nome, and it was the main city of the fourth Upper Egyptian nome. It was close to Nubia and the eastern desert, with their valuable mineral resources and trade routes. The site of Thebes includes areas on both the eastern bank of the Nile, where the temples of Karnak and Luxor stand, and the western bank, where are the large private and royal cemeteries and funerary complexes.

Waset was little more than a provincial town in the Old Kingdom. Though two brick-built mastaba tombs dating from the 3rd or 4th dynasty have been found in the Theban area, and a small group of tombs have been found dating from the 5th and 6th Dynasties in the area of the necropolis known as el-Khokha, it is not clear if there was an actual Old Kingdom settlement here. The royal residence and tombs, as well as most of the tombs of the court and government nobles at this time, were primarily built at Saqqara near Memphis, closer to the Delta.

No buildings survive in Thebes older than the portions of the Karnak temple complex, which may date from the Middle Kingdom, but the lower part of a statue of King Niuserre of the 5th Dynasty has been found in Karnak. Another statue which was dedicated by King Senwosret of the 12 dynasty may have been usurped and re-used by him, since the statue bears a cartouche of Niuserre on its belt. Since seven rulers of the 4th to 6th Dynasties appear on the Karnak king list, perhaps at the least there was a temple in the Theban area which dated to the Old Kingdom.

According to the current historical record, Thebes did not come into its political strength until the First Intermediate Period. A large number of private inscriptions from this period indicate that the rulers, or provincial governors, or Koptos, Moalla, and Thebes are prominent at this time. One governor named Ankhtifi relates that though he was able to take over the areas of Edfu and others, he was subsequently defeated by forces from Thebes and Koptos.

The Theban rulers were apparently of the family Inyotef, who before long began to write their names in cartouches. The second of this name even called himself the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, though his power didn’t extend much further than the general Theban region.

Finally, one ruler named Mentuhotep, meaning Montu is satisfied, took the prenomen of Nebhepetre, and it is he who is credited with once again reuniting all Egypt under one ruler, and beginning the 11th Dynasty, what Egyptologists call the Middle Kingdom. Nebhepetre ruled for 51 years, and built the temple at Deir el-Bahri that most likely served as the inspiration for the later and larger temple built next to it by Hatshepsut in the 18th Dynasty.
Once again Thebes declined politically, as Amenemhat I of the 12th Dynasty decided to move his capital north again to a new site called Itjtawy or Lisht. Although the capital was moved, Thebes took on a new role as the religious center of the nation, as its god Amun was promoted to principal state deity. The oldest remains of a temple dedicated to Amun date to the reign of Senwosret I in the 12th Dynasty. The core of this Middle Kingdom building lay in the heart of the current temple, behind the sanctuary. Its walls were constructed of limestone which were later removed for use elsewhere. So now there is an empty space between the sanctuary and the Festival hall of Tuthmosis III. However, the small so-called "White Chapel" shrine built by Senwosret I has been rebuilt and stands in the Open Air Museum at Karnak.

The peak for Thebes came during the 18th Dynasty. Its temples were the most important and wealthiest in the land, and the tombs on the west bank were among the most luxurious Egypt ever saw. The center of the city during New Kingdom and later times stretched between the two major temples of Karnak and Luxor, along the avenue of sphinxes that connected them. The area is now almost entirely covered by the modern city of Luxor.

During the Third Intermediate Period, the High Priest of Amun formed a counterbalance to the 21st and 22nd Dynasty kings who ruled from the Delta. Theban political influence receded only in the Late Period.

The main part of the town and principal temples were on the east bank. Across the river on the west bank was the necropolis with tombs and mortuary temples, but also the west part of the town. Deir el-Bahri is there, the mortuary temples of Nebhepetre Mentuhotep and Hatshepsut, and the temple of Amun by Tuthmosis III, the Ramesseum of Ramesses II, and other mortuary temples of Seti I at Qurna and Amenhotep III with the Memnon Colossi. Amenhotep III had his palace at el-Malqata there, and in the Ramessid period, Thebes centered north of there, at Medinet Habu.

Most of the temples on the west side of the Nile were royal mortuary temples to maintain the cult of the deceased kings buried in their tombs cut in the cliffs further west. The most important of these temples were at Deir el-Bahri, the Ramesseum and Medinet Habu. The mortuary temple of Seti I stands at Qurna, while only the Memnon Colossi and other fragmentary statuary now mark the site of the enormous temple of Amenhotep III. The temples dedicated to the deities Hathor, Thoth and Isis, all dating from the Graeco-Roman period, were also built in the area.

The Charm of Sharm

The site of Sharm el-Sheikh shows up as early as 1762 on a Spanish map, but until about 1968, it was nothing more than a quiet fishing community. However, in recent years, Sham el-Sheikh has become one of Egypt's best known and most visited beach resorts. In fact, in recent years, the Egyptian government has worked hard to spread around the Beach vacationers by developing or encouraging the development of many other beach resorts, but Sharm remains the leading tourist spot in the Sinai and there are a number of reasons for this.

First of all, it is a year round resort, hot in the summer, but pleasant and warm in the winter, and it has an international airport that attracts both private and many international charter flights.

Next, the area between Tiran Island and Ras Mohammed National Park on the tip of the Southern Sinai features some of the world's most amazing underwater scenery. Here, one finds crystal clear water, rare and beautiful reefs, and an incredible variety of exotic fish amongst the colorful coral. Much of this can be seen simply by snorkeling off the coast, but of course it is well known world-wide for scuba diving, with easy access to some of the Red Sea's most prominent and interesting dive sites. Just to the south of Sharm, on the very tip of the Sinai, is also one of Egypt's oldest and most beautiful, mostly underwater protectorates, Ras Mohamed.

To accommodate divers, Sharm has ever possible amenity, including first rate dive shops, centers and boats. Many of these are operated by Europeans, and they also provide excellent diving training. A few of the oldest include the Camel Dive Center and South Sinai Divers.

However, Sharm el-Sheikh also offers the beauty of the Sinai, with its majestic mountains and valleys, a number of national parks, as well as some well known nearby tourist attractions such as St. Catherine's Monastery.

There is more to Sharm, however, than the beaches, sea and landscape. It is a well developed area that almost seems more like a European resort than Egyptian, with refined facilities and amenities, including these days, some more budget oriented accommodations as well as five star hotels equal to most any in the world. And, while one is capable of spending most any budget at their disposal here, for most Europeans, it remains a relatively inexpensive alternative to more costly beach resort alternatives elsewhere.

Add to this the fact that, because of the number of tourists who continually pour into Sharm, there is just about every activity a vacationer could hope to find, and it is no wonder that the resort area is so popular. Name a water sport and it can almost certainly be found here, but there is also every other activity from four wheeling to go cart tracts, from horse riding to championship golf.

One may bowl, bungee jump or, believe it or not, even ice skate. Furthermore, there are any number of activities for children, as well as adults, because Sharm is very much family oriented. Then in the evening, Sharm takes on almost a Las Vegas flavor with, all along the boardwalk between the hotels and the sea, various types and styles of floorshows (animations), bands, both Arabic and Western, and other entertainment. Its a circus, but it is a charming circus as one walks along the boardwalk, hearing a dozen or more languages from every part of the world.

True, Sharm el-Sheikh is often called the "City of Peace", because of the various peace conferences held in the city and attended by world leaders, but it is also a "world resort", popular among and visited by people from all over Europe, because of its affordability, but also by those from much more distant lands, because it is fun.

The Sharm el-Sheikh area consists of three main areas, consisting of the old town Sharm el Maya (Moya) and its bay, a number of other bays, where most of the tourist facilities are located, though in fact some very fine resorts are located elsewhere, and El Hadaba, where there are vacations villas, apartments, condominiums and a few hotels.

A map of the Great Sharm el-Sheikh Resort Region

In the greater resort area of Sharm el-Sheikh, the bays include, from south to north, Sharm el Maya, Na'ama Bay, Garden Bay, Tiger Bay, Sharks Bay, and Nabq Bay. There are all sorts of hotels and resorts along this strip of coastline. Some are resort compounds, similar to those more frequently seen on the Red Sea coast, which attempt to provide every option to vacations in one spot. Others are more open, particularly along Na'ama bay, where the board walk provides access to various hotel facilities making them available to everyone.

Of the bays, probably Na'ama Bay, which means "pleasant" in Hebrew, is best known, and this is also where the most hotels are located. These include some of, but by no means all of the finer hotels, including several Hiltons, several Sonesta hotels, a Marriott, the Movenpick, and the less expensive Ghazala, run by the always hospitable people of South Sinai Travel. Up the coast just a bit, near the airport one finds actually some of the newer, very exclusive hotels, including the Four Seasons, the Hyatt, the Intercontinental, another Hilton, the Sheraton, the Movenpick Golf Hotel, which was host to Egypt's first professional golf tournament, and others such as the Holiday inn. A number of other hotels are scattered about, including the Ritz Carlton and the Hilton Waterfalls to the south of Na'ama Bay nearer to downtown. There are a number of other very fine hotels that are not part of major chains, as well as more affordable hotels, some private and some chain, such as the Days Inn.

The downtown area of Sharm, or at least the old town, around Sharm el Maya (Moya) is not large, but there are any number of restaurants and nightspots, such as the Hard Rock Cafe, and various well known fast food chains. Here, one finds the local bazaar (suq). This is also where the main port and marina at Sharm are located, though there are several other marinas up the cost from here at Na'ama Bay and Sharks Bay. Here, one finds the fishing and diving boat jetty. There are banks, and other facilities, as well as one of the three hospitals located in the area.

Sharm el-Sheikh is really, in the end, an extravaganza of entertainment in a beach setting backed by the natural wonders and historic enclaves of the Sinai. I suppose that Sharm is not for everyone, though this author has always enjoyed his visits to this part of the Sinai. What it is not, for the most part, is a laid back experience. For that, one would need to head a little further north to somewhere like Dahab or Nuweiba. Let there be no doubt Sharm is a tourist town with little other purpose, but the community has taken pride in making it more than a vacation destination. It is a one of those places where memories are made, that remain pleasant and fondly cherished dreams

Tanis (San El-Hagar)

Whether Tanis is considered to be the most important archaeological site in Egypt's northern Delta or not, it is almost certainly one of the largest and most impressive. Nevertheless, it is characterized by an eclectic reuse of materials that were usurped from other locations and earlier reigns.  Tanis was actually its Greek name. We are told that its ancient Egyptian name was Djanet. Tanis was built upon the Nile distributary known as Bahr Saft, which is now only a small silted up stream that dispatches into Lake Manzalla.

Napoleon Bonaparte had the site surveyed in the late 1700s, but afterwards, in the early 1800s, most of the work at Tanis was concerned with the collection of statuary. Jean-Jacques Rifaud took two large pink granite sphinxes to Paris, where they became a part of the Louvre collection. Other statues were taken to Saint Petersburg and Berlin. Henry Salt and Bernardino Drovetti found eleven statues, some of which were also sent to the Louvre, but also to Berlin and Alexandria, though those sent to Alexandria are now lost.

Auguste Mariette was the first to really excavate the site between1860 and 1864. It was he who discovered the famous Four Hundred Year Stela, as well as several royal statues, many of which were dated to the Middle Kingdom. However, he mistakenly identified it as the ancient Hyksos capital of Avaris (Tell el-Dab'a). He also thought that it might have been Ramesses II's residence city of Piramesse (Pi-Ramesses).

Mariette was followed by Flinders Petrie, who excavated here between 1883-86. Petrie made a detailed plan of the temple precinct, copied inscriptions and excavated exploratory trenches. Roman era papyrus discovered by Petrie are now in the British Museum.

Pierre Montet, excavated at Tanis between 1921 and 1951, and the site is still being excavated by the French today. It was Montet who conclusively proved that Tanis could not have been Avaris (Tell el-Dab'a) or Piramesse. Montet also discovered royal tombs of the 21st and 22nd Dynasties at Tanis in 1939, but his discovery resulted in little recognition because of the outbreak of World War II. The tombs were all subterranean and built from mud-brick and reused stone blocks, many of which were inscribed.  Four of the tombs belonged to Psusennes I (1039-991 BC), Amenemope (993-984 BC), Osorkon II (874-850 BC) and Sheshonq III (825-733 BC).  The occupants of the other two tombs are unknown. However, the hawk-headed silver coffin of Sheshonq II was also found in Psusennes' tomb, as well as the coffin and sarcophagus of Amenemope. The sarcophagus of Takelot II (850-825 BC) was found in the tomb of Osorkon II. The artifacts from the Tanis necropolis are the most important source of knowledge covering royal funerary goods of the Third Intermediate Period.



During the Old and Middle Kingdoms, the region was known as the Field of Dja'u, which was a good fishing and fowling preserve. Today, the area is often called San al-Hagar, which actually refers to the northern tell (or hill) where much of the site is located. San al-Hagar is actually the largest tell in Egypt, encompassing some 177 hectares of land, and rising about 32 meters. However, there is also a southern mound known as Tulul el-Bid. San al-Hagar is also the name of the local village, which was built upon the western quay of ancient Tanis

 

Originally, the region was a part of the thirteenth nome (province), but Tanis became the capital of the nineteenth Lower Egyptian nome in the late period (747-332 BC). The earliest mention of the town is known from a 19th Dynasty building block of Ramesses II discovered at Memphis. However, nothing at the site itself suggest an existence prior to the 20th Dynasty. 20th Dynasty burials lie under an enclosure wall, which indicate  a settlement, but the greater metropolis was probably not founded until the reign of Ramesses XI, the last king of the 20th Dynasty, when Egypt was divided between two rulers. It became the northern capital of Egypt during the 21st Dynasty. It was probably the home city of Smedes, the founder of that Dynasty and, since one of his canopic jars was found in the vicinity, probably the location of his tomb. Though there were rival cities, we believe it remained Egypt political capital during the 22nd Dynasty. By the Roman Period, the port of Tanis had silted up, and Tanis became a fairly minor village. Most of the temple limestone was burned for its lime at that time. During Byzantine times, Tanis became a small bishopric, but it was eventually abandoned during Islamic times, and was not resettled until the reign of Muhammad Ali Pasha

There were a number of temples, seven according to the Egyptian government, located in the area of Tanis. The chief deities worshiped here were Amun, his consort, Mut and their child Khonsu, who formed the Tanite Triad. Note that this triad is, however, identical to that of Thebes, leading many scholars to refer to Tanis as the "northern Thebes".

The earliest recorded building at Tanis dates to the reign of Psusennes I, Smedes's probable successor during the 21st Dynasty. He was responsible for the huge mud-brick enclosure wall surrounding the temple of Amun between four ranges of hills on Tell San el-Hagar. which he erected in a depression of virgin sand some eight meters above the flood plain using earlier blocks quarried from structures at Piramesse,  The wall measures 430 by 370 meters 10 meters tall, and was 15 meters thick.  Within the outer wall is a mud-brick interior wall. Joint inscriptions of Psusennes I and Pinudjem I within the temple indicate a reconciliation between the thrones of Tanis and Thebes.

However, rulers from the 21st and early 22nd Dynasties added to the temple complex, and Nectanebo I (380-362 BC) used stone from earlier building projects of Sheshonq and Psamtek to construct the sacred lake.

An obelisk at Tanis clearly connected with Ramesses II, from the cartouch

Today the site is full of inscribed and decorated blocks, columns, obelisks and statues of various dates, some inscribed with the names of rulers such as Khufu, Khephren, Teti, Pepi I and II and Senusret I. However, the majority of inscribed monuments are connected with Ramesses II, though these items must have been brought in for there is no evidence that the site dates from before the reign of Psusennes I. He is positively attested by foundation deposits in the sanctuary in the easternmost part of the great temple. Other later kings are also attested to through foundation deposits. Egyptologists believe that the artifacts of Ramesses II were probably imported from ancient Piramesse, which we today identify with the modern town of Qantir.

Near the southwestern corner of the main temple complex are smaller temples dedicated to Mut and Khonsu. Astarte, an Asiatic goddess, was also worshiped in these smaller temple, which were originally built under the reign of Siamun (984-965 BC). This construct therefore completed the ensemble of structures fashioned after Karnak, and thus making Tanis into a northern replica of Thebes.

There were other structures within the enclosure wall, in particular a sed-festival chapel and a temple of Psamtik I, but these were some of the stones used by Nectanebo I in his building efforts. Osorkon II usurped many of the earlier monuments of the Amun Temple to built an East  Temple, using granite palmiform columns dating to the Old Kingdom that were re-inscribed first by Ramesses II prior to their reuse, and then once again by himself. Sheshonq III built the West Gate of the temple precinct from reused obelisks and temple blocks, some from the Old and Middle Kingdom. It was fronted by a colossal statue usurped from Ramesses II.

During the Late Period, the Nubian king Piye of the 25th Dynasty conquered Tanis and King Taharqa, a successor made it his residence for a short time. Some reliefs from that dynasty have been found reused in the Sacred Lake's walls. Afterwards, Tanis passed back and forth between Nubian, Assyrian and Saite rulers until the 26th Dynasty, when Psamtik built a kiosk at Tanis. It featured a procession of nome gods, but this structure was later dismantled and reused in other structures. During the First Persian Occupation of Egypt, no further building seems to have taken place at Tanis.

Necktanebo I, during the 30th Dynasty, probably was responsible for an enormous outer wall built of brick, as well as a temple to Khonsu that was annexed to the northern side of the old Amun temple, near the Northern Gate. However, it was not completed until the Ptolemaic period. There was also a temple of Horus, near the East Gate, that was begun during the 30th Dynasty, but it too was completed by the Ptolemies. Ptolemy I built the East Gate of the precinct, and Ptolemy II and Arsinoe dedicated a small brick chapel, while Ptolemy IV built a temple in the southwestern Mut enclosure. However, by this time, the Amun temple was almost certainly abandoned, as there were Ptolemaic era housed built over the structure.

Today, the site of Tanis mostly consists of large mounts of occupational debris. The temple precinct lies in the middle of these mounds. The huge enclosure walls are now mostly gone, and one may enter the site from several directions, though the classical route is through the ruined pylon of Sheshonq III. Within, the site is littered with fallen statuary,

reused columns ranging in date from the Old through the New Kingdoms, around fifteen reused obelisks of Ramesses II, and reused temple blocks from all periods. At the center of the Amun temple are two deep wells that once served as Nilometers. The northern corner is the site of the ancient Sacred Lake, while at the southeastern corner, outside the main temple precinct, is the smaller precinct where the temples of Mut, Khonsu and Astarte were located.

Tanis is probably not one of those sites one would wish to visit on a one time, short tour of Egypt. However, for those on a second trip, or with a little additional time, it is a very nice tour through Egypt's Delta, including perhaps a stopover at Tell Busta, further south. Such a tour would usually only take one day.
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Cairo, Egypt

Cairo, Egypt has always been attracting travelers, dating back over 10 centuries ago to the time of the Mamluks. However, the beautiful, hectic, crowded, surprising, enchanting (and every other cool sounding adjective) city of Cairo is still in the eyes of the Egyptians the City Victorious, known officially as al-Qahirah or simply "Masr", the name for Egypt as a whole. Cairo is one of the world's largest urban areas and offers many sites to visit. It is the administrative capital of Egypt and, close by, is almost every such as the  of Giza on the very edge of the city. There are also ancient temples, tombs, gorgeous Christian churches, magnificent muslim , and of course, the Egyptian Antiquities Museum all either within or nearby to the city.

As long as you're willing to loosen your senses and lose yourself to this majestic city, you can discover the sweetness of Cairo; the coziness of small cafes and the pleasure of strolling along narrow streets. It would be impossible to accurately describe Cairo fairly; it is truly one of a kind.

Cairo, Egypt is an amazing city full of life and movement, and it is that way almost 24 hours a day, with the noisy honking of horns, children playing in the streets and merchants selling their wears and services.

The city provides great culture; including art galleries and music halls, such as the Cairo Opera House, Sawy Culture Wheel, Ahmed Shawky Museum as well it should, being one of the largest cities in the world. It also provides accommodations fitting every budget from the grandest in the world, such as the Four Seasons and the Cairo Marriott to budget hotels and hostels.

When you're done with the sightseeing and morning exhaustion, embrace Cairo's incredible selection of shopping, leisure and nightlife activities. Shopping ranges from the famous Khan el-Khalili souk, (or bazaar) largely unchanged since the 14th century, to modern air-conditioned centers displaying the latest fashions. All the bounty of the East can be here. Particularly good buys are spices, perfumes, gold, silver, carpets, brass and copper-ware, leather work, glass, ceramics and mashrabiya. Try some of the famous street markets, like Wekalat al-Balaq; for fabrics, including Egyptian cotton, the Tentmakers Bazaar; for appliqué-work, Mohammed Ali Street; for musical instruments and, although you probably won't want to buy, the Camel Market makes a fascinating trip. This is, and has been for over a thousand years, truly a shopper's paradise.

Go for shisha (water pipe) in one of the old cafes on the street, you can try cool flavors like apple, coconut or even Red Bull. Get yourself a nice meal of koshari for as little as 4 pounds, and eat like a true Egyptian. Have a nice Faluka ride down the Nile, and enjoy the cool breeze glancing at the different Felucca decorations.

In a city as lively as Cairo, with diversity, culture and good-hearted people who are always willing to help, you'll never run out of things to do.

About Ancient Egypt....

For many, the scope of egypt historeys difficult to comprehend. Its history covers some five thousand years, and encompasses the origin of civilization, the rise of the GEERKS and Romans, the establishment of the Jewish, Christian and Islamic religions, the colonial era when first France and then the English ruled the country, and finally, a return to independence. Egypt has played an important role through all of these eras, and today one can find monuments that evidence Egypt's role in most of the world's historic events, from the beginning of mankind until the present. More and more, we are not only learning about the history of mankind in Egypt, but also about his prehistory, the way that he migrated and finally began to organize communities that eventually lead to a civilized world.

In Egypt, we find the earliest detailed records of warfare recorded thousands of years ago, but we also find the cemeteries and monuments of the world's last global war, World War II. In Egypt, we find some of the first written words of civilization, but we also find great thinkers and writers through the Greek period, into the Christian era, the archaic Islamic period and even modern Nobel Literates. In Egypt, we find ancient pyramids and giant columns supporting massive temples, but we can now find these architectural elements spread throughout the world. Here, along with the first monumental buildings made of stone, we also find the first paved roads, the first wines and beer and even the first peace treaties between organized governments. However, we also find the world's first scientists, doctors, architects and mathematicians.

Egypt is our window to humanity's distant past and in understanding its history, we find both mankind's greatest glories and achievements, as well as his often repeated mistakes. We may follow along with the building of empires, only to see them collapse again and again. We find great men and rulers of renowned, but we often also see their ultimate demise.

And here, we learn about religion, its evolution and, as the world grows older, its replacement with newer religions. Yet, the ancient Egyptian religion has never really completely died out. Even today, many Egyptians continue customs, including some aspects of religion, held over from thousands of years ago. In fact, throughout the world, aspects of the ancient Egyptian religion, particularly funerary, continue to effect our modern lives.

We hope you enjoy our efforts to bring Egyptian history and its monuments to your fingertips. Here one will find just about every aspect of ancient Egypt, from culture to people, from monuments to knowledge. Take the time to understand ancient Egyptian history, and we feel certain you will find, within this knowledge, a better understanding of this modern world in which we live.

Crowns of Ancient Egypt, An Introduction

Many people think in terms of a having a single crown that was worn as a symbol of his office. However, in ancient Egypt, there were a number of different types of crowns, mostly worn by gods, kings and queens and sometimes their children. Sometimes, as in the case of the Red and White crowns, they could also be combined to form a special symbolism, such as in this case, the unity of Upper and Lower Egypt under one ruler. They played a dominant role in the composition of the royal and the divine image. Gods and kings were never represented without one, because they indicated important aspects of both royalty, divinity, and of Egypt itself.

According to the ancient Egyptians, and specifically the Book of the Dead, the original wearer of the crowns of Egypt was Osiris:

"Glory be to thee, O Osiris Un-Nefer, thou great god in Abtu (Abydos), King of Eternity, Lord of Everlastingness, God whose existence is millions of years, eldest son of Nut, begotten by Geb, the Ancestor-Chief, Lord of the Crowns of the South and the North, Lord of the High White Crown "

For kings, the number and variation of crowns grew over time. However, various gods were frequently associated with a single crown, such as Selket. The basic headdress of her crown did sometimes change, but almost certainly it was surmounted by a scorpion. At the same time though, because the identities of various gods were sometimes merged with others, a certain crown primarily worn by one god might also be depicted crowning another. Specifically, whether king or god, the crowns worn by them always impart upon the wearer aspects symbolized by the nature of the crown.

Form and Composition

So much of ancient Egypt has survived into this present day, but apart from circlets and kerchiefs, no real ancient Egyptian crowns have survived. hence, their actual size and the material from which they were made is uncertain, even though we do have many examples of statuary and reliefs that depict gods and royalty wearing them. As in most cultures, crowns mark the wearer as distinct from the average human being. This is usually achieved by optically "enhancing" the wearer, making him or her appear taller, and by using precious material, such as gold, silver and gemstones. Egyptian crowns are generally represented as very tall, sometimes so tall that they could hardly have been worn, and indeed, such elements as high feathers are represented in token from at a much smaller scale on some surviving royal headdresses. This fact emphasizes the emblematic significance of items of regalia, which functioned virtually as hieroglyphs, with their combinations forming "sentences" that could be read and altered by varying their constituent elements. This view is supported by cases of posthumously altered headdresses in representations of royal personae.

Royal regalia, and in particular crowns, often link their wearer with the superhuman sphere, and the height of Egyptian crowns itself points toward the heavenly or divine. Therefore, the crown of Queen Hatshepsut can be stated to "pierce the sky" during her coronation before the god Amun. Bestowed on the ruler by the gods in texts and representations, in ancient Egypt crowns symbolize the connection of earthly and divine rule. Most crowns can be said to belong to the sun god Re, or some other deity, but bestowed by them on the king. Adornment with precious materials (or their colors), in particular the shimmer of gold and silver, provides a further link with gods who are associated with radiance. Solar or stellar disks can be added to a crown-type as well as one or more cobra-form uraeus snakes, which represent the fire and blinding radiance issuing from the sun god's "eye". the solar disk, to consume potential enemies. Crowns themselves are often equated with the eyes of Re or Horus. Typically, only one uraeus adorns the forehead of the ruler. In the Early Dynastic Period and the Old Kingdom, it appears exclusively with kerchiefs (nms) and headbands, but never on tall crowns. From the 6th Dynasty onward, royal women too may wear a uraeus. A few uraei of gold, some of them inlaid, survive from Middle and New Kingdom tombs. The distinctive shape of the uraeus, like that of crowns in general, at different periods can provide important evidence in dating uninscribed artifacts. For example, a double uraeus, one usually wearing the Red Crown and the other the White Crown, is attested for royal women from the reign of Ahmose on. A variation is the (sometimes double) uraeus augmented by a vulture head, referring to the goddess Wadjet and Nekhbet. Another examples includes the plain Kushite cap, which is distinctive of rulers of the 25th Dynasty and their Napatean and Meroitic successors. Depending on the context, the uraeus can also bear the head of a gazelle (especially for subsidiary royal women) or an ibis. Ptolemaic queens may even wear a triple uraeus. A further increase in the number of cobras is attested from the reign of Amenhotep III on, when a kalathos of uraei as a crown base is attested. Akhenaten is the first king to display a circlet of uraei, also worn by gods, around some of his crowns. The radiance conveyed by disks and uraei likens the wearer to the gods, and the increase of their number on crowns seems to correspond with periods of intensified solar cult activity, developing in particular during he Amarna period. Plants or parts of animals may also be incorporated into crowns, including feathers (of falcons or ostriches) and horns (of rams, cattle or gazelles). These features appear to associate the wearer with the qualities of the specific god who was manifest in a given animal. Thus, the curved ram's horn, a symbol of Amun, which occurs at the side of royal headdresses from the time of Amenhotep I, identifies the ruler with this god and imbues him with divine qualities. Plant ornaments are confined mostly to the crowns of queens and princesses, and seem to evoke beauty and youth or rejuvenation. Exceptions are the central element of the atef-crown and the occasional presence of the ished-fruit on the same crown, and the "wire" or curl" of the Red Crown. Religious and Political Significance. The large number of crowns attested for a single ruler, such as Hatshepsut, with nine different types and the same number of basic headdresses, is attested in depictions from the Old Kingdom on. They reflect different aspects of kingship. The political and religious significance of crowns for the image of the king can be inferred from the fact that different headdresses were favored in different periods. Thus, some types of crown do not appear in the Amarna period, as an example. Akhenaten's queen Nefertiti wore crowns confined to the king in other periods, such as the cap crown, and new crown types were invented for her, apparently to symbolize her expanded role Some texts suggest a metaphorical use of the royal crowns to embody the office of kingship, or even the political or geographical notation of the kingdom. Such was the Double Crown, symbolizing the rule of both Upper and Lower Egypt. Funerary Crowns Funerary literature from the period of the Pyramid and Coffin Texts on provides that crowns are an important role to play int he rites of passage that transform the deceased into an inhabitant of the sky. Endowing him with divine attributes such as radiance, they both lien the dead king to the gods of the sky and impart to him authority over them. They symbolize ascent to the sky and rebirth, as is shown by representations of crowns in the object-friezes on coffins and beneath the bier, and also by the practice of placing crown-amulets on mummies. This symbolism relates to the range of meaning of the Egyptian term h'w, which can be rendered as "arisings" and "manifestations", as well as "crowns". The same root is used in the term of accession to the throne. Crowns were also used in the temple ritual evoking the rebirth of deities, and crown models are known to have been kept in temple crypts.

Temples of Egypt by Monroe Edgar

Writing an introduction to ancient Egypt temples is considerably more difficult then examining any specific structure, for a number of different reasons. First of all, the term "temple" is misleading, and secondly, the term covers a huge variety of different structures that evolved over such a vast period of time that many people have a difficulty comprehending just how long a time this period spans

The Ramessuem on the West Bank at Luxor (Ancient Thebes)

For example, think of the Roman Coliseum (in Rome). It is almost 2,000 years old, and most of us would think of it as very ancient. Yet, when the Romans first came to Egypt, they were awe struck by Egyptian temples, some of which at that time were already more ancient to the Romans, then the Roman Coliseum is to us. So we must consider the effect that these temples had on the ancient Egyptians. Imagine the feelings of old tradition and holiness felt by a young priest when he first enters St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome. How must a young Egyptian priest felt as he strolled the courts of the much more temple of Heliopolis, which was much more ancient to him then St. Peter's would be to a young priest of today.

Webster's New World Dictionary defines temple as "1. a building for the worship of god or gods, and 2. A large building for some special purpose". For the second definition, they provide the example, "a temple of art". Neither of these definitions fit the ancient Egyptian temple very well, and yet, almost every religious structure in Egypt outside of the various types of tombs are almost always referred to as temples.

Certainly some of these "temple" structures do embrace both of Webster's definitions. In fact, it is difficult to imagine most any large, ancient building not falling under the second definition, including palaces and governmental buildings. However, our modern readers are more likely to think in terms of the first definition, that of a temple being a place of worship. However, this definition is simply too limited to fit even the structures that many modern Egyptologists better define as a "god's mansion". Even these temples sometimes had many other functions, acting sometimes as fortresses, administrative centers and even concrete expression of propaganda or royal retreats. However, it is difficult to define some other religious structures that are called temples as houses of worship or "god's mansions". They may have other political or all together different purposes.

It was the ancient Egyptian temple that received endowments. It was the mortuary temple and the cult of the dead king that funded the entire pyramid complex of the early kings, for example. Temples owned land, livestock and received donations, sometimes including the spoils of war, in order to support often large populations of priests, workers, and sometimes even an entire support town

The Temple of Karnak at Luxor

The Temple of Karnak today remains the worlds largest religious structure, but what is perhaps even more interesting is that it might not have been, or indeed was probably not Egypt's largest temple. Certainly the Temple of Ptah in Memphis, though for the most part completely gone today, may have been larger. It was older, and located in what was often the capital of Egypt, and more often the administrative center of the ancient country. Other temples in the Nile Delta might have been just as large as Karnak, if not larger.
Sites such as Karnak, Dendera and Kom Ombo would most likely fall under the category of "god's mansion". They were more than religious "temples" however. While the god may certainly have been worshiped in these temples, it was also his symbolic home, if not considered his physical residence, and the functions of the temple were as much to serve his or her symbolic physical needs as they were for the god's worship. There was probably little or no "preaching" as such, or carrying the message of the god to the people by priests associated with these "temples". Rather the efforts were directed inward, towards the care of the gods.
Also, though we often make a very specific distention between mortuary temples of kings, for example, and temples such as Karnak, they were actually very similar. Kings were considered gods, and after their death, they required a "mansion" and the same attention as other gods. Both regular and mortuary temples served to keep the name of the king or god alive.

Temple of Dendera

The real distinction, religiously, seems to be in regards to structures that might not so easily be defined as "god's mansions". Nefertari's temple at Abu Simbel was certainly dedicated to the goddess Hathor, it would seem. But this also seems to be a situation where a "god's mansion" was built as much for political as for religious purposes. These great monuments at Abu Simbel, consisting of her temple, and the larger temple of her husband, Ramesses II, were not just temples. They were also reminders of Egypt's greatness to her southern neighbors. Other structures hardly fit within the "god's mansion" category at all. For example, Sed-festival Temples that celebrated the king's jubilees seem to have had a completely different purpose than "god's mansions", and ka Temples provided a residence not to the dead king, but for his soul.

Nevertheless, for convenience, we will refer to most religious structures other than tombs as temples in the remainder of this reference.
Dynastic era temples may be found throughout Egypt, though the ones that have survived time are mostly in the south. They were built for many different forms of worship, as well as other purposes. Some were major temples dedicated to major deities, while others were dedicated to a number of different deities. Some were mortuary temples, where the temple was dedicated to the deified dead king, and where he was worshiped and cared for by his cult. There were also valley temples, which were often no more than monumental gateways connected to the king's mortuary chapel by a causeway. There were all manner of specialized temples, such as Sed-festival temples, ka temples, sun temples, coronation temples and others.

Many of Egypt's temples became complex systems of buildings, added to by generations of pharaohs over sometimes thousands of years. Such temples include those of Luxor and Karnak, but others long destroyed, such as the Temple of Ptah. In fact, there are any number of northern temples, though long gone, that would have rivaled the southern temples that we most often visit today.
Most Temples had some sort of organized structure that evolved into a traditional, if somewhat varied floor plan. For example, the mortuary temple of 5th Dynasty kings invariably had an outer section and an inner sanctuary. The outer section would consist of an entrance corridor, followed by an open columned courtyard. Often, the pillars were inscribed with the king's name and title, and the northern columns would have scenes oriented to northern Egypt's symbolic gods, with a similar arrangement on the southern columns. Various additional minor chambers might also exist within the outer section, including, for example, an entrance vestibule or a guard station. Between the outer temple and the inner section there was usually a transverse corridor, and in the center of the long, west wall a doorway lead to the inner sanctuary of which the front section consists of a chapel with five niches for statues. Behind the chapel would be an offering hall, notable for a false door on the west wall that faces the pyramid, and before the door, an offering altar. Within the inner sanctuary there might also be additional rooms, such as vestibules and antechambers. Associated with both the outer and inner sections of the temple would be storage and other annexes to one side or both of the main temple components.

Non-mortuary temples often also had courtyards, chapels, offering halls, vestibules, antechambers, just like the mortuary temples. They tend to vary considerably in their style and elements, though temples built for specific gods tended to be more uniform (though not always). One of the major differences between mortuary temples and others was that the non-mortuary temples were very often added to, built upon and even usurped by various kings. Though in rare cases a mortuary temples, such as that of Djoser at Saqqara, became places of high holiness, and were built upon by later kings, most mortuary temples were never added to or usurped. They therefore most often were much more simple than major non-mortuary temples.
Latter temples took the form of fortresses, with massive entrance pylons and enclosure walls, huge courtyards, columned or pillared halls and inner sanctuaries.