The Kings (Pharaohs) of Ancient Egypt

The title of "Pharaoh" actually comes to us from the Greek language and its use in the Old Testament. It originates in the Egyptian Per-aa, meaning "Great House", a designation of the palace, which first came to be used as a label for the king around 1450 BC, though it only became common usage some centuries later. For most of the time, the usual word for the king of ancient Egypt was nesu, but a whole range of titles were applicable to any full statement of a king's names and titulary.

According to Egyptian legend, the first kings of Egypt were later some of Egypt's most famous gods. We really do not know whether some of these individuals actually existed in human form or what regions of Egypt they may have ruled over. Only at the end of the Predynastic period, prior to the unification of Egypt, can we recognize specific kings who most likely ruled over either northern or southern Egypt. According to many sources, the first real king of Egypt, therefore ruling over the unified land, was Menes, who would have ruled Egypt around 3100 BC, but we have little if any archaeological basis for this name. Most scholars today believe that he may have been a king named Narmer, or more likely still, Aha, two figures that are better attested in the archaeological record.

However, Menes might have also been a legendary composition of several rulers. After these first rulers of a unified Egypt, the Egyptian monarchy lasted in a recognizable form for over three thousand years, basically ending with Cleopatra, though even Roman emperors attempted to style themselves as Egyptian pharaohs. We know of 170 or more specific pharaohs during this period of time. Although many changes occurred during that time, almost all of the fundamentals remained the same.

Kings were not only males, and unlike in modern monarchies, the ruler of ancient Egypt, whether male or female, was always called a king. In fact, Egypt had some very noteworthy female rulers such as Hatshepsut and others.

In ancient (Pharaonic) Egypt, the pinnacle of Egyptian society, and indeed of religion, was the king. Below him were the layers of the educated bureaucracy which consisted of nobles, priests and civil servants, and under them were the great mass of common people, usually living very poor, agricultural based lives. Except during the earliest of themes, when the highest official was apparently a Chancellor, for most of Egyptian history, the man or men just under the king were Viziers, (tjaty), a position that was roughly similar to a modern Prime Minister.

In many if not most accounts, the king is viewed as an incarnation of Horus, a falcon god, and the posthumous son of Osiris, who himself was a divine king slain by his brother, Seth. Horus fought his uncle for the return of the throne, and part of the accession process of the king was the proper burial of his predecessor, as Horus carrying out the last rites of Osiris. In fact, there are a number of cases where such an act may have been the legal basis for a non-royal figure's ascent of the throne. However, more usual was the succession of the eldest son, whose status as heir was frequently, if not always, proclaimed during his father's lifetime. Furthermore, there were a number of instances where this was taken a step further by the heir's coronation as a co-regent prior to the father's death. This has actually led to much confusion among scholars, because in some cases, the young heir began to count his regnal years only after the death of his father, while in other instances, he started to do so from the moment of his coronation. The ancient Egyptians did not use era dating as we do today (BC or AD), but rather relied on regnal dating of the king's rule, and therefore potential difficulties for modern, if not ancient, historians

In many if not most accounts, the king is viewed as an incarnation of Horus, a falcon god, and the posthumous son of Osiris, who himself was a divine king slain by his brother, Seth. Horus fought his uncle for the return of the throne, and part of the accession process of the king was the proper burial of his predecessor, as Horus carrying out the last rites of Osiris. In fact, there are a number of cases where such an act may have been the legal basis for a non-royal figure's ascent of the throne. However, more usual was the succession of the eldest son, whose status as heir was frequently, if not always, proclaimed during his father's lifetime. Furthermore, there were a number of instances where this was taken a step further by the heir's coronation as a co-regent prior to the father's death. This has actually led to much confusion among scholars, because in some cases, the young heir began to count his regnal years only after the death of his father, while in other instances, he started to do so from the moment of his coronation. The ancient Egyptians did not use era dating as we do today (BC or AD), but rather relied on regnal dating of the king's rule, and therefore potential difficulties for modern, if not ancient, historians can easily be imagined.

he king himself (or herself) was the figure upon whom the whole administrative structure of the state rested. These god-kings usually commanded tremendous resources. The Pharaoh was the head of the civil administration, the supreme warlord and the chief priest of every god in the kingdom. All offerings were made in his name and the entire priesthood acted in his stead. In fact, he was himself a divine being, considered the physical offspring of a god. The myth of the ruler's divine birth centered on the god assuming the form of (or becoming incarnate in) the king's father, who then impregnated his wife, who accordingly bore the divine ruler.
Of course, the king was also subject to some rather grave responsibilities. Through his dealings with the gods, he was tasked with keeping the order, or ma'at of the land, and therefore keeping out chaos, often in the form of the enemies of Egypt from foreign lands. But he was also responsible for making sufficient offerings and otherwise satisfying the gods so that they would bless Egypt with a bountiful Nile flood, and therefore a good enough harvest to feed his people. When he failed at these tasks, he could bear not only blame, but a weakening of the state and thus his power. In drastic cases, such as at the end of the Old Kingdom, this could actually lead to a complete collapse of the Egyptian state.

Even today, many questions remain about the kings of ancient Egypt. We have a fairly good idea of their order through time, though often scholars disagree about specific dates related to our current form of the calendar. Our evidence of their order comes mostly from various "kings' lists, that almost exclusively were made during the New Kingdom. Another source is the Egyptian history written by Manetho, an Egyptian priest, but over the years, there have been modifications to both the kings' lists and Manetho's history made through archaeological discovery. Nevertheless, there are periods of Egyptian history, particularly those known as intermediate periods, where very little information exits on who ruled (usually only a part of) Egypt.

Basically, Manetho divided up ancient Egyptian history into thirty dynasties, though this division is a bit difficult, and modern scholarship has proven it to be not completely (and sometimes not at all) accurate. Most of the time, a dynasty consisted of a related family of rulers, though sometimes dynasties seem to have been broken up due to the establishment of a new capital. In a number of instances, modern Egyptologists believe that he may have been incorrect about the end of a family line.

Even today, the power that an ancient Egyptian pharaoh commanded in ancient Egypt and the resources under his control can seem staggering. One need only think in terms of the Great Pyramids, the wealth of gold and the grand temples to gain some understanding of their power. They commanded resources that many modern day states would be hard pressed to emulate, and they did so at a time when much of the remainder of the ancient world were struggling for a foothold in history.

An Overview of South Saqqara in Egypt

South Saqqara is completely separate from Saqqara. It is located about one kilometer south of the pyramid of Sekhemkhet, which is the most southern of all the pyramids in Saqqara. South Saqqara was founded in the 6th Dynasty (2345 - 2181 BC) by the pharaohs. A few of the tombs are interesting and are based on the architecture of the Pyramid of Unas. Most of the tombs have been plundered for their stones by stone-masons or their suppliers of stones.

The pyramids of Pepi I and Merenre (Merenre's Pyramid) are in complete ruin. To the east of the pyramid of Merenre is the Pyramid of Pepi II. This pyramid is surrounded by an entire funerary complex. The inner chamber contains inscriptions and stars. There are smaller pyramids in the area as well that belonged to his queens. For example, Djedkare's 5th Dynasty pyramid has an adjoining pyramid that we believe was that of his consort or queen, but unfortunately there is no evidence of this woman's name. They are all designed the same as Pepi's and contain a miniature funerary complex as well. The Pyramid of Queen Neith has some wonderful decorations and inscriptions.

To the east of the Pepi II complex is the Mastaba Faraoun, the tomb of Shepseskaf. He was the last Pharaoh of the 4th Dynasty (2613 - 2494 BC). The inside is undecorated and large granite blocks make up the walls. The tomb looks like a huge sarcophagus from the outside. It was originally covered with a thin layer of limestone.

Further to the south are two more pyramids. The first belongs to Khendjer. This pyramid is made of brick and has a funerary complex that is made of quartzite. The second pyramid has no inscriptions and is unfinished. It has white stone chambers which are underground and a funerary chamber made of quartzite. No signs of use are found.

Pepi II, Last ruler of the 6th Dynasty and Egypt's Old Kingdom by Jimmy Dunn

According to tradition, Pepi II was the last ruler of Egypt's 6th Dynasty, and in fact the last significant ruler of the Old Kingdom prior to the onset of what Egyptologists call the Fist Intermediate Period. We are told that his reign of possibly 94 (some Egyptologist believe 64) years was the longest in ancient Egyptian history.  He seems to have come to the throne at about the age of six, and would therefore have lived until the age of one hundred.  However, because of the onset of the First Intermediate Period, the latter part of his reign was probably ineffectual, perhaps at least somewhat due to his advanced age. Both the Oxford History of Ancient Egypt and Peter A. Clayton, have his reign lasting from 2278 until 2184 BC.

The pharaoh's birth name was Pepi, (also Pepy, Phiops or Fiops) as was his father's.  His throne name was Neferkare, which means "Beautiful is the Soul of Re" His mother was Ankhnesmerire II (Ankhesenpepi), who was the sister of his older brother, Merenre and probably acted as Pepi II's regent during his youth. She may have probably been assisted by her brother, Djau, who was a vizier. There is a well known statue of her holding Pepi II as a young boy. However, after Pepi I's death, she seems to have married Merenre. He had a number of wives. These included Neith, the daughter of Pepi I and Ankenesmerire I and Ipwet (Iput II), the daughter of his brother Merenre. There is some confusion here, because we are told that he also married Ankenesmerire III, who was another daughter of Merenre, possibly by his mother Ankhenesmerire II. A final wife that we know of was Udjebten (or Wedjebten). He probably had at least one son named for his brother, Merenre.

We know that Pepi II continued foreign relations in a very similar manner to both his predecessors of the 5th and 6th Dynasties and even developed new links with southern Africa. He maintained diplomatic and commercial relations with Byblos in ancient  Syria/Palestine. However, we also learn of an incident where Pepi had to send Pepynakht (Heqaib) to bring back the body of an official who was killed on a mission in the area of Byblos.

Pepi II as a very young child, but wearing the Uraeus of a king.

In Nubia, Pepi sought a policy of pacification. We know of several trips and campaigns made south into Nubia both by Harkhuf, and his successor, Pepynakht. In fact, these powerful local governors managed to control Nubia long after the death of Pepi II form their base in Elephantine (near modern Aswan)

Pepi II appears to have been fascinated with some of these travels, particularly by his fathers old retainer, Harkhuf, governor of Aswan. One interesting account concerns a pygmy secured by Harkhuf on one of his African adventures. When  Pepi II learned of this he wrote Harkhuf a letter that Harkhuf later incorporated into his funerary autobiography:

You have said...that you have brought a pygmy of the god's dances from the land of the horizon-dwellers, like the pygmy whom the god's seal-bearer Bawerded brought from Punt in the time of King Isesi.  You have said to my majesty that his like has never been brought by anyone who went to Yam previously...Come north to the residence at once! Hurry and bring with you this pygmy whom you brought from the land of the horizon-dwellers live, hail and healthy, for the dances of the god, to gladden the heart, to delight the heart of King Neferkare who lives forever! When he goes down with you into the ship, get worthy men to be around him on deck, least he fall into the water! When he lies down at night, get worthy men to lie around him in his tent.  Inspect ten times at night! My majesty desires to see this pygmy more than the gifts of the mine-land and of Punt! When you arrive at the residence and this pygmy is with you live, hale and healthy, my majesty will do great things for you, more than was done for the god's seal-bearer.  Bawerded in the time of King Isesi.

He also continued long established mining practices. We know from an inscription that turquoise and copper continued to be mined at Wadi Maghara in the Sinai. Alasbaster was quarried at Hatnub and Greywacke and siltsone from Wadi Hammamat.

However, some information we have from some scenes attributable to Pepi II may be ritualistic.  For example, one scene depicting the submission of Libyan chiefs during his reign is a close copy of representations in the mortuary temples of Sahura, Niuserra and Pepi I. Some  Egyptologists believe that such scenes are more symbolic expressions of the achievements of the ideal king and bore little resemblance to the reality.

Calcite lid of a vessel.

Some would have us believe that the First Intermediate Period, a time of decline in Egyptian power, was bought on by low inundation of the Nile and crop failure. This is mostly because they believe Pepi II's mortuary complex was built and decorated in a much poorer manner then his predecessors. It his possible that this may have been a contributing factor. However, during Pepi II's reign, we find increasing evidence of the power and wealth of high officials in Egypt, with decentralization of control away from the capital, Memphis. These nobles built huge, elaborate tombs at Cause, Akhmin, Abydos, Edfu and Elephantine, and it is clear that their wealth enhanced their status to the detriment of the king's. Because the positions of these officials was now hereditary, they now owned considerable land which was passed from father to son. Therefore, their allegiance and loyalty to the throne became very casual as their wealth gave them independence from the king. Administration of the country became difficult and so it was  Pepi II  who divided the position of vizier so that now there was a vizier of Upper Egypt and another of Lower Egypt. Yet  the power of these local rulers continued to flourish as the king grew ever older, and probably less of an able ruler.

Foreign relations, particularly concerning Nubia, were also a drain on Pepi II' treasury. In fact,  in the latter part of Pepi II's rule, some foreign relations were actually broken off. Hence, we see that towards the end of his reign, the government of Egypt simply unraveled

A relief fragment from Koptos

Long reigns have proven to create succession problems.  As powerful as Ramesses II was, his successors likewise had problems because of their advanced age when they themselves ascended to the throne. Hence, we find that Pepi II may have been succeeded by a son, Merenre II, but perhaps for only one year. According to Manetho, he was married to a Queen Nitocris, who succeeded her husband to become the last ruler of the 6th Dynasty. However, very little archaeological evidence of Merenre II or Nitocris exists. Merenre II's mother would have probably been Neith. After Pepi II, the marvelous building projects ceased almost entirely until the reign of Mentuhotep II of the 11th Dynasty.

A temple at Abydos may have been a ka-chapel built by Pepi II. His pyramid and mortuary complex are located in South Saqqara. Most (if not all) of his wife's smaller pyramids have  been discovered nearby.

Pepi II is further attested to by a Calcite statuette of the young king and his mother, now in the Brooklyn Museum of Art, a decree of the king found at the mortuary temple of Menkawre, a decree found at Abydos, and three decrees at Koptos (Coptos). One inscription, now in Cairo, records his Sed festival and another inscription is has been found in Iput II's mortuary temple. The king was further mentioned in the biography of Djau (now in Cairo) in his tomb in Abydos and is mentioned in the tomb of Ibi at Deir el-Gabrawi.

Smaller items attesting to Pepi II include faience plaque from various places mentioning both his first and second Sed festival, a calcite vessels attributed to his reign, an Ivory headrest inscribed with his full titles and several objects found at Byblos.

The US King Tut Exhibit Tour

t will come as no news to most ancient Egypt enthusiasts that the treasures of the New Kingdom, 18th Dynasty pharaoh, Tutankhamun, perhaps better known to the world as King Tut, are coming to the US in June of 2005. This King Tut Exhibition is no small event, and one not to be missed, because the last time these artifacts left the basement of the Egyptian Antiquities Museum in Cairo for the US was some 26 years ago. There will be more than 130 objects on display, including Tutankhamun's royal diadem. This gold crown was discovered encircling the head of the king's mummified body that he likely wore while living.

The exhibit is being organized by National Geographic, AEG Exhibitions and Arts and Exhibitions International, with cooperation from the Supreme Council of Antiquities of Egypt. The Northern Trust Corporation has entered into an agreement with Los Angeles based AEG to become the National Sponsor of the event.

The layout, flow and scholarly conception of the show is being organized by curator David Silverman, the Eckley B. Coxe Jr. professor of Egyptology and curator-in-charge, Egyptian Section, University of Pennsylvania Museum, who also helped curate the 1970's tour. Zahi Hawass, secretary general of the Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities is writing the exhibition companion book, "Tutankhamun and the Golden Age of the Pharaohs," and a children's book, "Tutankhamun: The Mystery of the Boy King," both to be published by National Geographic in June 2005.

AEG is one of the leading sports and entertainment presenters in the world, and a wholly owned subsidiary of the Anschutz Corporation, which has never participated in an art exhibit in the past, but is now betting some $40 million that the company can run this blockbuster.

That $40 million will go to the Egypt's Supreme Council of Antiquities, and will help pay for antiquity site restoration in Egypt, as well as help finance the building of the new Grand Museum in Cairo. However, this type of "for profit" exhibit is also creating waves among museum curators. Several museums, including New York's famed Metropolitan Museum of Art refused the exhibition.

“It's not worth the cost, the hassle, the difficulty of setting up the whole infrastructure,” says Philippe deMontabello, director of the Met. “

Nevertheless, ticket sales, promoted through radio, print, billboard, television, direct mail, retail tie-ins and electronic marketing, suggest another wave of Tut-mania, despite the world's most famous art museum snubbing the world's most famous mummy.  "It is a merging of art and entertainment," said David Stamper, an executive vice president in the Los Angeles office of Chicago-based GolinHarris International, a public relations firm working on the rollout. "When you see these items, they are so incredible and so beautiful, that really all you have to do is to shine a spotlight on them.

The Tut Exhibit actually begins on June 16th, 2005 and runs through November 15th, 2005 at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, one of the same venues of it's last visit to the US. That first tour of King Tut's artifacts, which was only half the size of this the new one, is widely considered to be the first museum mega-event. It generated eight million visitors nationwide. Since then, such museum road shows have become commonplace and an opportunity for the various venues to generate new members and revenue.

Michael McDowell, senior director of cultural tourism for Los Angeles, said that the LA museum expects about one million people to attend the show, topping the Van Gogh exhibit in 1998-99 that brought 821,000 during a 17-week run. Tickets are currently on sale. Afterwards, the exhibit will move on to three other cities where it will be on display at the Museum of Art in Fort Lauderdale (beginning in December 2005), the Field Museum in Chicago (beginning in May, 2006) and the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia (beginning in February 2007).

The exhibit will include about fifty objects belonging to the boy king that were discovered when Howard Carter unearthed Tutankhamun's Valley of the Kings tomb in 1922. In addition, there will be scans of Tutankhamun's mummy captured through the use of a portable CT scanner and donated by Siemens Medical Solutions. These scans have allowed researchers to see through the mummy's wrappings for the first time and have never been on display in the past. Other documentary media, including videos, will also be on display.

The exhibition also will include more than 70 objects from tombs of other 18th Dynasty royals as well as several non-royal individuals. These stone, faience and wooden pieces from burials before Tut's reign will give visitors a sense of what the lost burials of other royalty and commoners may have been like. They include objects from the tomb of Amenhotep II,  the tomb of Tuthmosis IV and the rich, intact tomb of Yuya and Tuyu. All of the treasures in the exhibit are between 3,300 and 3,500 years old.

Tickets for the event can be purchased through any number of sources online, such as Ticket Masters, but there are many opportunities for special deals so shop carefully. For example, a number of LA hotels are offering a summer savings spectacular featuring deals and discount packages in connection with the Tut Exhibit. They include the Le Meridien Hotel in Beverly Hills, the Luxe Hotel Sunset Boulevard, the Doubletree Hotel Westwood, as well as various Holiday Inns and Sheratons.

Interestingly, the excitement of this exhibit seems to be spawning a number of others. For example, various science centers such as the McWane Center in Birmingham, Alabama will be featuring a Tut exhibit featuring 120 high quality replicas of the original treasures.

A Marsa Alam Adventure

Marsa Alam is located in the south of the Eastern Desert in Egypt on the Red Sea. It is 790 kilometers south of Cairo and about 300 kilometers from Hurghada. Marsa Alam is an old, small town famous for diving, fishing, and for its international port. However, in the past few years, Marsa Alam has become an important tourist destination, especially after the opening of the Marsa Alam International Airport. Many people, tourists and Egyptians alike, believe that Marsa Alam in the coming few years will become another Sharm El-Sheikh.

There are many reasons behind this belief but in order to understand them, we first need to understand the nature and conditions of Marsa Alam.
Marsa Alam is located in a very special place on the Red Sea. This is why there are so many coral reefs there that attract tourists from all over the world. Marsa Alam itself is a tiny primitive town with the international port four kilometers north of the town. The town consists mainly of two or three Oriental cafes and four small supermarkets. This is in addition to the bus station, a fuel station and a motel called Negmet Marsa Alam.

This motel is suitable for tourists who prefer cheap prices with average service.. A double room in the motel costs less than ten dollars per night with a private bath. Negmet Marsa Alam or Marsa Alam Star Motel provides some services like laundry, room cleaning, and they can organize some excursions. The only problem is that they have no air conditioners and the weather, even in the morning, is quite hot.

Though there is little in the town itself to allure tourists, the main attractions of the city are the many resorts spread on the Red Sea to the south and north. There are many three and four stars resorts, with five star facilities on their way. The Cataract, Sahara Resort, Breaka Resort, Amaraya, Kahramana, Shams Alam, and Ibortel are all examples of good resorts that offer proper services with reasonable prices.

Communication

All of these resorts have good telephone services with international lines and phones in each room. You can call anywhere in the world and the resort will charge you per minute. For the cell phone users, Marsa Alam is connected to the two mobile networks in Egypt, Vodafone, Mobinil, and Etisalat. Most of the resorts have fax and telex services as well.

Reception

All the reception areas and the rooms are air conditioned and the front desk in the resorts provide accurate information about everything in Marsa Alam. They have buses to the airport and back to the resorts. The front desk also can organize all sorts of tours for groups and individuals.

Methods of Payment

In the resorts, you can pay with US dollars, Euros, Pounds Sterling and of course Egyptian pounds (LE). You can also use Visa, MasterCard, American Express, and travelers checks. The resorts also provide money exchange service in case you want to have some Egyptian money for tips.

Medical Services

There is a small hospital in Marsa Alam with some simple equipment. In addition most of the resorts have professional doctors that are available 24 hours per day.

Water and Sun

It is not recommended to drink the tap water. Mineral water is sold everywhere. One should drink an average of three liters of water a day in order to remain healthy in the desert climate. The sun is very hot, even in the morning. Tourists should always use sun block lotions to protect their skin, but part of the fun of Marsa Alam is baking on the beach.

Other Services

The resorts offer great laundry services with good prices. Your clothes will be returned to you ironed and cleaned within 24 hours. Most of the rooms have safety boxes in the closets with a private key for the guest. Room service is operates 24 hours a day. The resorts also provide many other services from pool towels to business services.

How to Reach Marsa Alam 

Most of the tourists take airplanes from different European countries like Italy, Spain, Russia, and England straight to Marsa Alam International Airport. Some groups go to Hurghada by plane, spend a few days there, and then go to Marsa Alam by bus. Egypt Air now also offers some flights to Marsa Alam. Misr Petrol Company also has a flight from Cairo to Marsa Alam and vise versa every Monday and Thursday. Many of the flights coming from Europe are charters, bringing tourists on all-inclusive vacations. Other than that, there are air conditioned buses provided by South Egypt Travel. A bus goes from Cairo to Marsa Alam every night at 11:00 pm. East Delta Travel provides another bus every night at 9:00 pm. These buses have comfortable seats and they show films on the way. The prices range from 10 to 12 dollars from Cairo to Marsa Alam. The problem is the trip takes from 11 to 12 hours with rests in the middle and the bus stops at every city on the way like Ras Ghareb, Hurghada, Safaga, and El Quseir. I took the South Egypt bus on my way to Marsa Alam. I went to the station 15 minutes before 11:00 pm and I was happy the bus left at the scheduled time. Although I thought the bus would be empty, the bus was full of people and there wasn’t a single empty seat. I was lucky to have a seat at the front of the bus in order to watch where we were going. The seats were big and comfortable with air conditioning and private light for each passenger. The man who sat next to me is an Egyptian working as a human resources specialist in Ibortel Resort. He gave me a lot of info about Marsa Alam as I told him this is the first time for me to go there. They showed two modern Egyptian films on our way that I really enjoyed. There were also four check points along the way where police came aboard the bus to check everyone's IDs. We stopped four times for rest but the longer stop was at a rest house called Zaafarana Star, which is a huge Oriental café that offers food and barrages. There were many other buses going to different Egyptian regions like Qena, Hurghada, and Tanta. The waiters there bring the food hot and very fast because they know the guests want to catch the buses. I enjoyed two sandwiches of Oriental sausages and a cup of tea. The prices were really cheap. My bill came to less than six Egyptian pounds, are a little less than one US dollar. The bus stopped in so many cities to take passengers but it was a good chance for me to get off the bus and smoke, because smoking isn’t allowed inside the bus. With the sunrise I started to enjoy the ride very much. I was able to watch the sea and the rise of the sun over the sea and the mountains. The view was amazing. When we reached Marsa Alam, we began passing many resorts. Some of them had classic decorations while most of them were in the Bedouin style. Many of the passengers on the bus worked at one or the other of these resorts, so the bus slowly emptied. Finally we came to the town of Marsa Alam, were I to got off to begin my adventure. Transportation Inside Marsa Alam All, all the resorts have air conditioned buses to take their guests to different places in Marsa Alam. The buses have schedules with specific departure times. Public transportation is also available with microbuses and taxis that you can take one from town to any of the resorts. Distances of 20 to 30 kilometers cost only about three Egyptian pounds. Otherwise, one can rent a private car at very reasonable rates. Big Complexes While on my way in the bus I noticed a resort called Balbaa. What caught my eye is that it is really a complex of three resorts, consisting of the Kahramana, Amaraya, and Calmera. I had to stop at the security gate and the security guy had to check my luggage. Everybody is being cautious now days and the security is very strict. The reception of Amaraya was a big hall with many cozy sofas to sit on. I talked to the receptionist at length about what where and what to do in Marsa Alam, and he was very helpful and patient. This guy, and all the staff, were exceptionally friendly and knew a lot about the city and the resort. The receptionist printed me a guide to everything in the resort and in Marsa Alam, so off I went. The Balbaa Resort has two swimming pools and three different beaches. Two of them are in the resort and the other is ten kilometers away. There are buses that go there all day long. The hotel has 98 rooms with controllable air conditioning, satellite TV, safe boxes, international telephones and private bathrooms with hair dryer. Morning Activities Most of the people awake in the morning at Marsa Alam wind up on the beach, and they are indeed some of the most beautiful in Egypt. The water is crystal clear and the air is clean and refreshing and although the weather might get hot, a jump in the sea makes one forget about all the world's woes. Many Italians, the main tourist population in Marsa Alam, were enjoying the sun. Some were reading, chatting or just catching some rays, while others were snorkeling among the colorful fish and corals. The moment I reached the Balbaa resort I wanted to visit the beach, for which Marsa Alam is famous. Although the weather was hot I was enjoying the walk because of the many roses and plants spread in the resort and on the way to the beach. From afar, the sparkling water seemed to be an amazing baby blue. was two in the afternoon when I reached the beach. There weren’t many people there. Perhaps, many had gone on to lunch, but soon the beach began to fill back up. The beach was indeed gorgeous, and it is always times such as this when I regret being alone. It would have been nice to have a friend with me and even magnificent to have my girlfriend along. Everything there is so romantic and calm with only the sound of the waves as if they are whispering to you. Than a clever Italian girl caught my attention, as she positioned a chair in the water for a cool afternoons nap. I looked around the beach and decided to take a walk. There were many tourists doing different things but they all seemed happy and relaxed. While buying a cold bottle of water from the beach bar, I had a short talk with the vendor. He was a young Egyptian man called Esam. He seemed like he wanted to chat in Arabic because all day long he has to speak Italian with the guests. He told me he has been working here for more than five years and that he likes it here, as the place is calm and the guests are friendly to him. He told me that the Balbaa group is building a new resort called Habiba that should be finished in six months time. We spoke a bit about Marsa Alam and how it will grow in the coming few years before I thanked him and continued my walk. I noticed a small hill at the end of the beach with some decorations on top. Of course, I had to climb up to the top, where I found a grand view of the beach. In front of you there is the most amazing looking water with different shades of blue. To the left there is the Amaraya beach with huge mountains surrounding it. To the right, there is the Kahramana beach with a view straight off of a post card. The decorations on the hill itself including a big door locals call the time gate. This is because one can walkthrough it and view the sea as as it was 100 years ago. Kahramana has a nice seafood restaurant on this hill that opens in the afternoon and closes at midnight. Diving in Marsa Alam Diving is one of the major activities that brings people to Marsa Alam. This is because the Red Sea wears her finest clothing in this remote spot. Some of the fish and corals that are extremely rare. Especially some shark breeds can be found nowhere else. There are more than ten diving centers in Marsa Alam with the best imported equipment. Many European diving centers have branches in the city. Deep South, Wadi Gimal, Ocean Pro and Aquarius are probably the most popular and important diving centers in Marsa Alam.

Another diving center is Pioneer Divers, the oldest diving center in Marsa Alam. I visited this center, and found that, while they were one of the first to open in Marsa Alam, they have all kinds of modern technologies because they import everything from Europe. They have professional diving instructors that speak Italian, English, German and Spanish. Obviously, they are very experience. These guides are certified by major diving federations like PADI, SSI, and CMAS. The center provides all kinds of diving lessons and trips. There are many diving spots in Marsa Alam and Pioneer Divers organizes trips to all of these places. The most famous spot in Marsa Alam is Shaab Samadai or the Dolphin House. It is an all day trip with two dives viewing some of the oldest formations. There is also a high probability to snorkel with the dolphins. Another very famous diving spot in Marsa Alam is Elphinstone which is an offshore site for advanced diver. This is the best place in the world to swim with the sharks! Afternoon Activities

An Overview of Saqqara Proper in Egypt by Alan Winston

Sakkara is one section of the great necropolis of Memphis, the Old Kingdom capital and the kings of the 1st Dynasty as well as that of the 2nd Dynasty. are mostly buried in this section of the Memphis necropolis. It has been of constant interest to Egyptologists.

Three major discoveries have recently been made at Sakkara, including a prime minister’s tomb, a queen’s pyramid, and the tomb of the son of a dynasty-founding king. Each discovery has a fascinating story, with many adventures for the archaeologists as they revealed the secrets of the past.

Sakkara is best known for the Step Pyramid, the oldest known of Egypt's 97 pyramids. It was built for King Djoser of the 3rd Dynasty by the architect and genius Imhotep, who designed it and its surrounding complex to be as grand as it was unique and revolutionary. Imhotep was the first to build stone tombs in honor of the king's majesty. His many titles included 'Treasurer of the King of Lower Egypt', 'Administrator of the Great Palace', and 'Imhotep the Builder, the Sculptor, the Maker of Stone Vessels'. Imhotep may have also designed the pyramid of Djoser's successor, Sekhemkhet.

Pyramid of Unas

5th Dynasty kings such as Userkaf (pyramid) and Djedkare-Izezi built their pyramids at Sakkara. The last king of 5th Dynasty, Unas, decorated his burial chamber with the famous 'Pyramid Texts', spells written to help the king ascend to the heavens and descend again, which reveal the relationship of the king to the gods. 6th Dynasty kings such as Pepi I, Merenre and Pepi II built their pyramids to the south of Sakkara.

Sakkara is also famous for its private Old Kingdom tombs (see our feature story on 1st Dynasty Tombs), which contain beautiful and revealing scenes: men force- feeding geese, cattle crossing a canal, men dragging a statue on a sled to the tomb. The best-known tombs are those of Ti, Kagemni, the 'Two Brothers', and Ptahhotep; the most famous is that of Meruruka.

During the New Kingdom (c 1570-332 BC) Memphis took second place to Thebes as Egypt's capital. But although the administration was established at Thebes, the government officials who ruled Upper Egypt lived in Memphis and were buried at Sakkara. Here Geoffrey Martin found the famous tomb that Horemheb built for himself before he became pharaoh, while he was still the overseer of Tutankhamun's army.

The Goddess Isis

Martin also found the tomb of Mava, Tutankhamun's Treasurer. The first of the recent discoveries at Sakkara dates from the New Kingdom. This site is being developed by the French Archaeological Mission of the Bubasteion at Sakkara under the direction of Alain Zivie, Director of Research at the Centre Nationale de la Recherche Scientifique at Paris.

Zivie started work at a place in Sakkara called Abwab el-Qotat, 'The Doors of the Cats', so called because hundreds of cat mummies were found here. The Ancient Egyptians worshipped the cat goddess Bastet, whose main place of worship was at Tel-Basta near Zagazig in the east
of the Delta. At Sakkara her sanctuary or Bubasteion stood above a cliff in which some New Kingdom tombs were cut, some of which were re-used much later for cat burials connected with the Bubasteion.

The Abwab El-Qotat site had been neglected for many years. It was dangerous because the cliff was crumbling and the tombs were falling apart, but the French archaeological team has been working here for the last 14 years. The main focus of their work has been the tomb of the Vizier Aperel or Aperia. In the 14th century BC he served as the prime minister of Lower Egypt under the Pharaohs Amenhotep III and his son Amenhotep IV, known as 'Akhenaten'. (The latter worshipped a single god, the sun's disk or 'Aten'.)

Aperia's tomb was discovered in 1987, and several seasons of excavation and consolidation of
the tomb gave Zivie the opportunity to clear almost completely a huge burial complex on four levels. The last level still contained a large part of the funerary treasure of Aperia, his wife Tauret and their son Huy, a prominent general.

The big surprise was the discovery of the funerary chamber, which was found hidden behind the stairway. Despite an ancient plundering this was still full of funerary equipment and other furnishings which was an extraordinary find for archaeology as well as for art history.

Statue from the Tomb of Mery-Sekhmet Aperia and his Dautgher

Aperia and his Dautgher

The remains of the Vizier, his wife and their son were found in beautiful coffins, along with canopic jars of alabaster, objects of daily and religious use, and many jewels. The gold was transferred to the Cairo Museum and is on exhibit there. The beautiful rings and bracelets can be compared only with those found at Thebes at the beginning of this century.

Dr. Zivie's report, referring to the funerary chamber as the 'chapel', stated that:

"...until the end of 1993, only a small part of the chapel itself, near the entrance, was known. A late masonry, very compact and thick, was present almost everywhere at the first level of the tomb, preventing investigation. This masonry is no only present in Aper-El's tomb, with its representations of the Vizier. Three cult niches were revealed when we removed the masonry and gebel (dry stones) which had blocked the entire chapel..

The decoration on the main, central, niche remained in a very good state of preservation. On the sides are paintings of the Vizier, each with his complete name, Aper-EI, receiving offerings of flowers or purification from two sons previously unknown to us. Their names and titles are present: one, Seny, was a high official; the other, Hatiay, was a priest. The representations are important because they illustrate the art of the time of Akhenaton (the Amarna Period) and its aftermath not at Amarna or at Thebes, but rather at Memphis, which remained the main city of the country.

But also in some neighboring tombs. This masonry can almost certainly be dated to the beginning of the Ptolemaic (Greek) Period. The site would have been consolidated then for re-use in cat burials at the sanctuary of Bastet above the cliff.

It was necessary to remove the blocking (late masonry) in order to explore the chapel completely... a technical task, not a work of excavation. We undertook it with the agreement of the Egyptian Antiquities Organization. The operation provided the Mission with a chance discovery: the larger part of the chapel of the tomb had been hidden by the masonry. The decoration had been very well preserved behind the stones and mortar.

The work took several months, but the chapel is now completely cleared... Now we have a complete picture of the first level of the tomb. The result is impressive. There are three square pillars, one completely unknown before, on the inner faces of which one can still discern representations of the Vizier and of his son. The fourth pillar is no longer present. A splendid ceiling, beautifully decorated in brilliant colors, is also almost completely preserved.

The most important discovery in the chapel was the back wall, side of the burial chamber. Near the sarcophagus was found the canopic chest of the king, with his viscera wrapped in bandages of fine linen.

" Examining the high sand mounds on the south side of Pepi I's pyramid, the expedition found small pyramids of queens and others who may have been queens. We know that Pepi I married two sisters, the daughters of the Mayor of Abydos (which could be the first recorded case of an Egyptian god-king marrying a commoner). From the French team's work we now know for the first time the queens for whom these pyramids were built. The first, for example, was built for Queen Nwb-wnt.

In 1995 they found the pyramid of Queen Meryt-it-is. We already knew this name as that of the wife of King Khufu (Cheops), builder of the Great Pyramid. She enjoyed the titles of 'King's Wife' and 'King's Daughter'. Her newly- found pyramid raises Egypt's total of pyramids with superstructures to 97.

It is expected that the expedition will find more 8th Dynasty pyramids in this area. We know that Sakkara was the burial-place of those kings, and have already located the pyramid of King Iby..

The third recent discovery at Sakkara was made while excavating in the vicinity of the pyramid of Queen Iput I, a wife of Teti, first king of 6th Dynasty. His reign was about 68 years and he married two queens, Iput and Khuit.

The new Pyramid of Meryt-it-is

Obelisks, Temple of Queen Inti

The historian Manetho stated that King Teti was assassinated by his bodyguard, but some scholars believe that Teti's eventual assassination was motivated by resentment at the eclipse of priestly authority. Naguib Kanawati of Macquarie University, Sydney, has uncovered evidence to support the murder theory.

The name of Teti's pyramid was 'The Pyramid Which Is Enduring Of Palaces'. Its original height was 52.5m/172ft. It was first opened in 1881 and was found to resemble other 6th Dynasty pyramids. Inside was a sarcophagus of gray basalt, and near it were found Teti's viscera in a canopic chest like that of Pepi I.

Queen Iput's and Khuit's pyramids are located about a ninety meters north of Teti's. In 1897-99 V. Loret excavated it and found a large limestone sarcophagus, containing the cedar wood inner coffin of the Queen. Inside the coffin were her remains. On the bones of her right arm were found scattered remains of her necklace and a gold bracelet.

We excavated around Queen Iput's pyramid, and found most of the rooms of its funerary temple. It was decorated with beautiful scenes. Also found in the temple was a monument dating from the 3rd Dynasty reign of Djoser, for whom the Step Pyramid of Sakkara was built.

This monument resembles a pillar. The shape of its top is called a Serelh, which means 'palace facade'. On it is written the name of Djoser, and above it is the falcon god Horus wearing the Double Crown on Upper and Lower Egypt.

Beneath Horus is a lion or lioness followed by a jackal. They are arranged in 12 registers. We believe that it could have been part of an entrance gate for the pyramid complex of Djoser. On its top would have been a lintel with Djoser's titles. Another monument similar to this one has also been found.

Another major discovery near Queen Iput's funerary temple is the tomb of Teti's son Teti-ankh-km, which means 'Teti-ankh the Black'. The false door of the tomb bears his name, the title of 'King's Son', and his most important title of 'Overseer of Upper Egypt'.

The tomb contains beautiful scenes of daily and religious life, including ladies bringing offerings, the slaughtering of animals, the deceased standing with his wife (represented in smaller scale), the lotus flower, and many other scenes. The colors in the scenes are distinctive, and the style is characteristic of the tombs of Sakkara during the Old Kingdom. Even during the later New Kingdom, most of the tombs at Sakkara display the same style and colors.

Statues from the Tomb of Mery-Sekhmet discovered by A. Zivie

'The back wall of the niche was originally decorated with a painted scene of Aper-El, Huy, and other members of the family before the god Osiris. In the 19th Dynasty [c13191200 BC] an important alteration was made. The painting was partly defaced and the wall was carved with a new and very impressive representation of Osiris flanked by the goddesses Isis and Nephthys.

This example is hard to explain, but it seems clear that the figures were used as cult representations, like statues. Because of the large size of the figures the niche, now cleared and visible from a distance, is really striking.

'The smaller western niche was found empty, but the Ptolemaic masonry of the eastern niche contained the mummies of cats, the most notable one in a limestone coffin with a superb cat mummy in linen wrappings. This was the first in situ cat burial found at Sakkara. It has nothing to do with Aper-El's tomb or time period. It was dedicated to Bastet when the site was blocked up and re-used, probably in the early Ptolemaic Period (4th century BC).

Pyramid text inside the Pyramid of Pepi I

In order to consolidate and protect the fragile parts of the cliff, as well as to study and understand the site, the masonry from other tombs in the vicinity were removed. Excavation work then concentrated on the tomb of the Royal Scribe and Chief of the Granaries, Mery-Sekhmet, who lived in the 19th Dynasty. This tomb, unknown before the Mission began to explore the site, is only partly preserved, but what is left is quite exceptional. The stone masonry of the Ptolemaic Period was systematically removed to reach and protect the original decorated walls of the tomb. The task was difficult and has proceeded slowly over several years.

The preserved walls of the chapel are now almost cleared and cleaned. They are decorated with superb relieves, partly inspired by the mastabas [tombs] of the Old Kingdom. In addition to religious scenes, they depict Mery-Sekhmet and his wife Iuy attending to agricultural work. Partly blackened by fire in ancient times, the reliefs and their color have been excellently cleaned and reinforced.

The main surprise awaited the Mission at the back of the tomb, where the removal of the masonry led to the discovery of a walled niche. The high humidity led to fears that nothing had been preserved in this remote part of the tomb, but this was not the case. The niche was slowly and methodically cleared in January 1994 and the winter of 1995. It contains a pair of superb statues carved in the rock.

These are standing figures more than 3ft high, still colored, of Iuy and Mery-Sekhmet, who holds a standard with small figures of Osiris and Re-Harakhte. This is the first time that such New Kingdom statues, carved into the rock, have been discovered at Sakkara. The faces of the man and woman are quite beautiful. Despite the fragility of the stone and the colors, the statues are well preserved. The joint team of Egyptian and French conservators pooled their efforts to stabilize and restore them.'

The second recent discovery at Sakkara was also made under the supervision of a famous French Egyptologist: Jean Leclant. This French expedition worked around the pyramid of Pepi I, the third king of the Old Kingdom's 6th Dynasty. In his reign Egypt reached a peak in art and culture. One of the king's courtiers, Weni, recounts that Pepi I appointed him to investigate a conspiracy on the part of Queen Imtis. But Weni does not say what she plotted against the king, nor what kind of punishment she suffered.

Jean Leclant and Jean-Phillippe Lauer studied the Pyramid Texts in the pyramids of the 6th Dynasty. Unfortunately the hieroglyphic inscriptions on the inner walls of Pepi I's pyramid had crumbled to the floor. The French team accomplished one of its most important tasks, reconstructing the inscriptions by computer. It took them almost five years to complete this impressive achievement, of which everyone is all proud.

As an amendment to this article, note that there is now an Museum with a special room dedicated to Jean-Phillippe Lauer's work located in Saqqara, with many other exhibits on this archaeological site, named the Imhotep Museum.

Map of the Saqqara Area